watercress

Flowering Watercress (Nasturtium officinale Ait. f. syn. Nasturtium-aquaticum L. )

Northeast wetland flora: Field office guide to plant species. Northeast National Technical

It is in connection with smoking where the might of our humble well-beloved Watercress (Nasturtium officinale Ait. f.: Cruciferae/Brassicaceae) has been ‘hot news’ of late for its significant anti-carcinogenic powers. It is an excellent Food Medicine, but its anti-carcinogenic use is particularly pertinent to smokers and those who have quit smoking in time for the national Smoking Ban 1^st July 2007.¹

Although the English prohibition follows similar bans to the Irish Republic and Scotland, and a ban in Wales starts on the 2^nd April 2007, it is seen by many English people in opposition as an infringement of their civil liberties!

However, all is not quiet north of the border either – resistance reigns! A week ahead of Scotland’s first ‘smoking ban’ anniversary, 26^th March, 2007, the Populus Survey for the pro-smoking group ‘Forest’^1A revealed that 74% of 1,004 people surveyed thought places like private clubs should be allowed separate well-ventilated ‘smoking rooms’.^1B In fact, the poll has suggested that three-quarters of people in Scotland believe there should be ‘exemptions’ to the smoking ban.^1C

In Ireland, where the ‘smoking ban’ is already in force, it was noted by one English MP on a recent visit there that pub gardens were ‘covered’ in patio heaters. It was remarked that patio heaters have become a ‘beacon of aspiration’ for those keen on dining al fresco in Britain’s unpredictable climate.^1D Patio heaters allow people to eat, drink and smoke outside, but another English MP wants to ban them!^1E

The blood is up and feelings are running high because some zealous anti-smoking campaigners and alarmist politicians fear that by sending smokers outside it will lead to a huge increase in greenhouse gas-emitting patio heaters. The Director of ‘Forest’ hit back, saying that any notion of banning patio heaters was ‘barking mad’ and smacked of ‘petty vindictiveness’ towards smokers. No doubt fuming, he said “Is it that these MPs simply do not like the idea that smokers might be moderately comfortable smoking outdoors?” He added that damage to the environment from patio heaters was ‘miniscule’ in terms of the overall effect.^1F

In Scotland business-wise the ban has had some adverse effects. The Independent MSP for Mid-Scotland and Fife claims that the ban has caused a downturn in the number of people going to bingo halls; some establishments had closed and others were in danger of going out of business. He also said bar takings in his constituency were ‘dangerously low’.^1G

Times have changed, if cigarettes have not. For example, the smoking of cigarettes has gone from being a classic portrayal of the sexiest female film stars on two legs of the 1940s, with smouldering ‘come-hither’ looks in figure-hugging slinky dresses, seductively wafting around a cigarette in a long-stemmed cigarette holder whilst making ‘come to bed’ eye-play at their leading man, depicting the epitome of the highly desirable ‘sexy female’, to treating and causing a smoker to feel like a pariah.

The smoking habit may seem caught in a time-warp, but the physical and mental addiction to nicotine is not. Official figures suggest one in four Britons smoke cigarettes.² The British figures are slightly below the EU average of 29%, which is a great deal less than statistics produced in 1948 when surveys started and 82% of British men smoked.³ The number of people who smoked fell rapidly throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the decline being pointedly among men with a falling off from 51% in 1974 to 28% and among women 41% to 24% in 2003 respectively.⁴ It is suggested that there are about 12 million adult cigarette smokers in Britain, plus a further 2.3 million men who smoke cigars, pipes or both.⁵

Initially the British Government’s Cabinet had proposed a ban only in pubs serving food,⁶ but MPs in the House of Commons finally voted with a margin of 200 votes for a ‘total ban’ on smoking in all enclosed public places, including offices, factories, pubs and bars, excepting residential care homes, hospitals, prisons and hotel bedrooms. The idea is to protect everyone from passive smoking. It is hoped that by making workplaces and enclosed public venues ‘smoke free’ it will bring about some significant health improvements countrywide.

Although the ban does not stretch to outdoors or in private homes, which would be just too totalitarian 1984ish to contemplate, and would indeed be a breach of civil liberties, opponents have said the total ban is ‘draconian’!⁷

From 1^st July, pubs and restaurants will have to display prominent ‘no smoking’ signs around their premises. The ban also brings in fines of £2,500 for not stopping people smoking in restricted areas.⁸ One of the UK’s biggest hotel and pub groups, which operates 150 hotels and 700 pubs, has vowed to challenge the ban in the courts and take it all the way to Europe if necessary.^8A

Perhaps it’s wishful thinking, but the Government expects 600,000 people will quit smoking as a result of the ban and reduce the death toll linked to smoking.⁹ It is envisaged that the ban’s enforcement will permit tens of thousands of people with lung disease to once again be able to visit pubs and restaurants.

Every year around 37,100 cases of lung cancer are diagnosed in the UK which causes around 33,500 deaths per annum.¹⁰ The disease has an enormous impact on national mortality and currently accounts for 6% of all deaths and 22% of all cancer deaths the UK.¹¹ Lung cancer also has one of the lowest survival outcomes of any cancer. In England and Wales around 25% of patients survive for one year following diagnosis and this falls to 7% at five years,¹² therefore, watercress really is a smoker’s delight and ‘a smoker’s saviour’, for anything that can help prevent this fatal disease is of great value.

Don’t blame the tobacco plant! Don’t let the fact that the tobacco variety used for cigarettes has an estimated more than 4,000 chemicals present, with at least 50 of them proven to be carcinogenic in the cigarette tobacco’s smoke, put you off the garden’s nocturnal enchantment of sweet fragrant nicotine flowers such as Nicotiana noctiflora and N. suaveolens and many other of their pleasant aromatic species.¹³

Most of the toxic chemicals of cigarette smoke, including carbon monoxide, benzene, formaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide, are created when tobacco burns.¹⁴ Plus (Canadian) manufacturers have publicly admitted that they put additives in tobacco used in their cigarettes, adding such chemicals as humectants, i.e. substances that help tobacco retain moisture, or ‘binders’ used for making reconstituted tobacco that are added to cigarette tobacco.¹⁵

There is one brand of cigarette and tobacco ‘Natural American Spirit’, made since 1982, that is marketed as being “100% Additive Free”. These tobacco products contain only whole-leaf tobacco and no sheet tobacco, nor processed stems.¹⁶ The Company also claims that they do not test any of their products on animals, and they purportedly donate a portion of their revenues to Native American Charities.¹⁷

Although the company warns that Natural American Spirit are as hazardous as other cigarettes and openly dissuades others from taking up smoking, according to a study by Oregon Health & Science University’s James Pankow, up to 36% of total nicotine content in an American Spirit cigarette may be ‘free-base’ nicotine, which form of nicotine gasifies more easily, and that is believed to allow it to be absorbed into the bloodstream via the lungs more quickly.¹⁸ However, the company denies the allegations that they add free-base nicotine to their cigarettes during processing.¹⁹

However, there’s no smoke without profits! For so many years smoking has been good news for the Treasury, especially these days with about £4.00 of the cost of a £5.00 packet of cigarettes taken in taxes (between 80%-90%).²⁰ According to Ash,²¹ excluding VAT, this earned the Treasury more than £8billion in 2003-2004.²²

The less people who were smoking the higher the taxes grew! The Treasury is going to miss this revenue. In fact, a lot of people have given up smoking for financial reasons rather than worrying about threats to their health or being impressed by expensive Government TV anti-smoking health advertisements. With the spiralling cost-of-living in the UK, by constantly hiking cigarette taxation the Treasury has ultimately helped dig its own ‘loss of revenue’ grave. It has probably given a good, if not the best, most arresting incentive for people to stop smoking before any ‘bans’ were called for or put in place.

Whatever, treating diseases caused by smoking is costly and the NHS is said to expend £1.5billion a year, including hospital admissions, GP consultations and prescriptions. There are further costs associated with sickness and invalidity benefits, widow’s pensions and other social security benefits for dependents.²³

‘Passive smoking’, the latest and greatest grave concern regarding the smoking habit/addiction, has been a prime mover in helping bring about the latest legislation and smoking bans.

There have always been concerns regarding the effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy and childhood environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). Studies in human subjects have already suggested nicotine as the primary causative agent in cigarette smoke that evoked airway irritation.²⁴

In February 2001, American researchers investigated exposure on asthma and wheezing in 5,762 school-aged children living in twelve Southern California communities. The researchers concluded that: “Maternal smoking during pregnancy increases the occurrence of physician-diagnosed asthma and wheezing during childhood. In contrast, current ETS exposure is associated with wheezing, but not physician-diagnosed asthma. Taken together, our findings support the hypothesis that ETS operates as a cofactor with other insults such as inter-current infections as a trigger of wheezing attacks, rather than as a factor that induces asthma, whereas in utero exposure acts to increase physician-diagnosed asthma.”²⁵

However, in recent years it has been discovered that susceptibility to ‘passive smoking’ causing problems is to a greater extent genetic-based.²⁶ For example, in 1999 American researchers found that, although exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is considered to be a major lung-cancer risk factor for never-smokers, a common genetic polymorphism divides the population of never-smokers into two groups of approximately equal size; one (homozygous carriers of the GSTM1 null allele) has a statistically significant greater risk of lung cancer from ETS than the other (heterozygous or homozygous carriers of the wild-type GSTM1 allele).²⁷

In 2004, German scientists posited that the genetically determined deficiency of glutathione S-transferase (GST) enzymes involved in the detoxification of ETS components may contribute to the development of asthma in a large population of schoolchildren. It was concluded that genetic GSTM1 and GSTT1 deficiency may increase the adverse health effects of in utero and current smoke exposure.²⁸

Last summer, a UK team of Scottish researchers from the University of Dundee studied 600 children and young people with asthma in the Tayside area. Although chronic exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke causes some children to develop serious chest problems like asthma, and some youngsters could face extra danger of long-standing lung-function decline, others do not appear to be particularly affected.²⁹ They checked airway peak flows, using a blowing test, and studied genes which help eliminate inhaled toxins.³⁰

Genetic investigation found that three-to-12-year-olds who are null for GSTM1 or homozygous for the GSTP1Val105 allele are more susceptible to asthma associated with ETS exposure than those with more intact Glutathione S-transferase status, and that the ETS effect in GSTM1-null children with asthma could be cumulative over time, resulting in detrimental effects on peak expiratory flow rate in 13-to 21-year-olds with asthma.³¹

Teenagers with asthma had 15% lower peak flows if they had one of the GST gene defects and were exposed to tobacco smoke, compared to asthmatic teenagers with intact gene status.³²

The genes which produce GST are subject to two common defects, one of which is present in about 50% of the population, with the other occurring in 12%.³³The two defects in the GST genes defined a high-risk population of young Scottish asthmatics in whom tobacco smoke was particularly harmful.³⁴

At present there is ‘no screening’ for gene defects. This would suggest that both parents and children from an early age would do well to adopt anti-carcinogenic watercress into their diet.

“Watercress”, as Vitacress Salads Ltd. so succinctly put it, “is not just a bit on the side” or a garnish to your main course, it is an outstandingly healthful Food Medicine.³⁵

It is well worth repeating that: “The ‘wow’ factor of Watercress is its ingredients. Its vitamin content is ACE! It is an outstandingly nutritious food, containing more Vitamin C than oranges, more calcium than milk, which calcium is almost as readily absorbable (for teeth and bones) and contains more iron for the blood, contra-anaemia, than spinach. It has masses of beta-carotene and Vitamin A equivalents helpful for skin and eyes and Vitamins E and B complex, as well as iodine for thyroid function and folic acid, which is useful to pregnancy. … Watercress’ full complement of minerals includes: calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, zinc, copper, manganese, selenium. sulphur, iodine, and manganese, as well as fatty and amino acids.”³⁶ Accordingly it is hardly surprising that the plant’s consumption has come to the fore and sales have vastly increased in less than a handful of years. For it has been scientifically known for some time to be a preventive and curative aid to smokers’ and lung cancer. [For additional information on watercress and Science Refs: See The Wonders of Watercress].³⁷

Naturally occurring and synthetic isothiocyanates are the most effective chemopreventive agents known.³⁸ Watercress contains naturally occurring isothiocyanates, for among its active ingredients are Mustard oil glycosides (glucosinolates), specifically gluconasturtiin, which can be hydrolyzed to 2- phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC).

The plant’s anti-carcinogenic prowess was acknowledged by Hecht’s 1995 and 1996 reviews on isothiocyanates, among them phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) that occurs as a constituent of certain cruciferous vegetables, among them ‘watercress’, to prevent cancer of various tissues including the rat lung,^39A mammary gland,^39B oesophagus,^39C liver,^39D small intestine, colon^39E and bladder.³⁹

Come 2002, isothiocyanates (ITCs) occurring as thioglucoside conjugates, termed glucosinolates, in plants and vegetables such as watercress, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, kai choi, kale, horseradish, radish and turnip were being investigated as possible chemopreventive agents for specific human cancers.⁴⁰ Although the investigation included a suggestion to adapt the isothiocyanates to be administered as a pharmaceutical drug, based on the then recent epidemiological studies, the role of dietary consumption of vegetables containing ITCs in prevention of human cancer and human cancer susceptibility was discussed.⁴¹

In 2005, an American study with regard to phenethyl isothiocyanates, as well as sulforaphane⁴² and their conjugates as chemopreventive agents for lung cancer, found the results of the study: ”provided a basis for future evaluation of the potential of these compounds as chemopreventive agents in smokers and ex-smokers with early lung lesions”.⁴³

However, many moons earlier, New Zealand researchers investigating colorectal cancer mortality presented rates for the period 1947-1980, as mortality had been increasing and was now the highest in the world for both males and females in the average range of 35-64: indeed New Zealand mortality rates from those aged 35-44 was approximately twice those of other countries with high mortality.⁴⁴ BUT, by contrast, colorectal cancer mortality among Maoris, the indigenous New Zealanders of Polynesian descent, were decreasing so that they were less than half the non-Maori mortality rates. The researchers advised that the findings, which could not be explained by ethnic differences in consumption of the major proposed dietary risk factors: total fat, cholesterol, meat, fibre and beer, be further investigated.⁴⁵

Seven years later, further work on the subject was carried out by New Zealand researchers, at which time there was a high rate of colorectal cancer with approximately 2000 new cases occurring and c 1000 deaths each year.⁴⁶ Again, “a lower incidence of colorectal cancer was reported for Maori than for non-Maori New Zealanders (22.2 and 43.7 per 100,000 respectively). Information from the New Zealand National Nutrition Survey (1997) showed that in comparison to non-Maori, Maori eat more in total, eat more red meat, drink more alcohol, consume more saturated fat, have a higher prevalence of obesity and have a lower proportion of individuals consuming a given level of fruit and vegetables per day. All of which factors would be expected to increase colorectal cancer risk.”⁴⁷

Aha! Surprisingly, it was found that ‘Puha’ (Sow thistle: Sonchus sp.) and Watercress (Nasturtium officinale, N. Aquaticum) are foods with credible cancer protective properties that are components of the Maori, but not the non-Maori diet!⁴⁸

Moving on, it is not so surprising that it was announced in February 2007, research shows that eating watercress regularly could help cut the chances of developing cancer!⁴⁹

A recent Irish study of 60 healthy volunteers, including 30 smokers, ate an 85g. bag of fresh watercress every day for eight weeks.⁵⁰ Tests were carried out by the researchers before and after this change in diet.

Results showed that watercress appears to have raised levels of beneficial compounds, and cut levels of harmful compounds in the blood. Tests showed that blood levels of antioxidant compounds such as lutein and beta-carotene that protect and combat ‘free radical’ damage were raised, whilst tested effects on cell samples’ with harmful triglycerides damage was 9.4% lower than normally expected.⁵¹ Notably, the beneficial changes were greatest among smokers, who started out with significantly lower levels of antioxidant compounds at the beginning of the study.⁵²

Importantly, it is suggested watercress also cuts DNA damage to white blood cells by 22.9%, which are considered to be a key ‘trigger’ in the development of cancer.⁵¹

Lead researcher Professor Ian Rowland, now at Reading University, stressed the importance of the practical dietary method of the study, as it involved people eating watercress in easily achievable daily amounts.⁵³ He said: “Blood cell DNA damage is an indicator of the whole body cancer risk, and, the results support the theory that consumption of watercress is linked to an overall reduced risk of cancer at various sites in the body.” ⁵⁴

Of course, all fruits and vegetables affect DNA damage, hence the recommendation that people eat their portions of ‘5-a-Day’. Some experts may question the efficacy of certain vegetables to reduce the risk of cancer, and larger studies are needed to determine the scale of watercress’ development as a cancer preventive, but there is a long, robust and growing body of evidence that it is highly efficacious as an anti-carcinogenic food medicine.

Watercress’ Potential for Other Cancers & Arthritis

The more researchers look for good things from watercress, the more they find. Last year, crude watercress extract was investigated by UK researchers in Northern Ireland in a study on human colon cancer cells, with the aim to cut DNA damage in cells and help control their growth and spread.⁵⁵ The extract, which was not genotoxic, inhibited DNA damage induced by two of three genotoxins, (hydrogen peroxide and fecal water), indicating the potential to inhibit cancer initiation.⁵⁶ In conclusion, they found the remarkable watercress extract proved to be significantly protective against the three stages of carcinogenesis process investigated, i.e. initiation, proliferation, and metastasis (invasion).⁵⁷ Howzat!

Although indications are a-plenty that intake of cruciferous vegetables is inversely related to prostate cancer incidence, the dietary factors have not been identified.⁵⁸ However, in 2004 American researchers demonstrated that exposure of human prostate cancer cells in culture to the N-acetylcysteine (NAC) conjugate of phenethyl isothiocyanates (PEITC-NAC), the major metabolite of PEITC that is abundant in watercress, inhibited proliferation and tumourigenesis.⁵⁹

In a group of PEITC-NAC supplemented immunodeficient mice with zenografted tumours of human prostate cells, during a 9-week treatment period 100% showed a significant reduction in tumour size by 50%.⁶⁰ What is more, the treated tumours also showed a significant increase in apoptosis (cell death). All in all, the study demonstrated the first ‘in vivo’ evidence of dietary PEITC-NAC inhibiting tumourigenesis of prostate cancer cells.⁶¹

The researchers concluded that PEITC-NAC may prevent initiation of carcinogenesis and modulate the post-initiation phase by targeting cell cycle regulators and apoptosis induction.⁶² Make no mistake, Watercress may look to be a simple little plant, but it is very clever.

Although a long list of health benefits is attributed by folklore to watercress, including arthritis, claims cannot be made or validated for watercress as an aid to the disease. However it is a relevant healthy addition to any diet and would seem a good inclusion for arthritic sufferers to their dietary regimes, especially if they are smokers.

In 2001, UK Liverpool researchers investigated the potential relation between cumulative exposure to cigarette smoking in patients with or without rheumatoid arthritis (RA), involving 239 outpatient-based patients with RA compared with 239 controls matched by age, sex and social class.⁶³ They found heavy cigarette smoking, but not smoking itself, is strongly associated with RA requiring hospital follow up and is markedly more prevalent in patients with RA without a family history of RA.⁶⁴

Swedish research in 2004 discovered that people genetically prone to arthritis who also smoke were storing up trouble for the future, and warned that it was another good reason to quit.⁶⁵ A spokeswoman from the Arthritis Research Campaign commenting on the research reportedly stated: “It had been known for some time that smoking is a risk factor for RA. There are various other risk factors and having a genetic predisposition is one of them. If you have a genetic pre-disposition and you smoke then your risk [for RA] goes up even more. The message is don’t smoke. ”⁶⁶ The Swedish team showed that combining both risk factors, genetic predisposition and smoking, increases a person’s risk of disease more than 15-fold.⁶⁷

Traditionally, infusions of the young watercress shoots are supposed to be good for arthritis, as well as digestive problems and congested lungs, but it has been said that the remedy should not be taken for more than one week.⁶⁸

Well-known as an herbal remedy for bronchitis and cough, in Italy compresses are made from watercress to treat arthritis.⁶⁹ Still, if you have a stomach or intestinal ulcer or a kidney inflammation watercress should not be taken; also it is not for children under 4 years old.⁷⁰

There are no known ‘drug interactions’ with watercress reported, and no harmful effects are known for the pregnant or breastfeeding women, but consuming large amounts of freshly-cut water cress can irritate the stomach and intestines due to its mustard oil content.⁷¹ Nevertheless, calcium is always needed by the body, especially to aid in the prevention of osteoporosis, and watercress is high in calcium which makes it a useful food-herb.⁷²

Why Stopping Smoking is Difficult

Watercress will not assist you to give up smoking, but it is a wise move to include this beneficial food medicine in your diet whether a smoker, an ex-smoker or non-smoker.

Some individuals may benefit from hypnosis as an aid to giving up smoking. Currently, members of the UK West Midlands Police, which officers already cannot smoke in uniform in public, and their civilian employees are being offered one single pre-paid hypnotherapy session to help officers quit smoking when legislation on ‘lighting up’ in the workplace comes into force.⁷³ It is hoped that by assisting staff to stop smoking, it will contribute to reducing health risks and absenteeism.⁷⁴

Getting to the crux of ‘why’ cigarettes produce an apparent physical and psychological addiction was given an explanation in an American study last month,⁷⁵ whereupon scientists found that smoking cigarettes affects brain chemicals.⁷⁶ The study suggests that smoking cigarettes causes the same changes to the brain as using illicit drugs like cocaine, which effects are evident years after someone has quit the habit. These cerebral changes may also explain not only why smokers find it hard to stop, but why they relapse.⁷⁷

In order to facilitate the research, post-mortem human brain tissue samples were taken from the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) midbrain of smokers, former smokers and non-smokers and were compared.⁷⁸ Eight samples were taken from people who had smoked until their deaths, eight from people who had smoked for up to 25 years before their death and eight non-smokers.⁷⁹ It is noteworthy that all subjects died of causes unrelated to smoking.⁸⁰

The relevant regions of the brain referred to play a part in controlling addictive behaviours; the nucleus accumbens is thought to play an important role in reward, pleasure and addiction.⁸¹ The ‘ventral tegmental’ (also called ventral tegmentum) is considered to be part of the pleasure system or reward circuit, one of the major sources of incentive and behavioural motivation. Activities that produce pleasure tend to activate the ventral tegmentum, and psycho-stimulant drugs such as cocaine directly target this area. Hence, it is widely implicated in neurobiological theories of addiction. It is also shown to process various types of emotion and security motivation, where it may also play a role in avoidance and fear-conditioning. The ventral tegmentum is rich in dopamine and serotonin neurons, and is part of two major dopamine pathways.⁸²

To further explain what is going on in the brain and where ‘smoking’ is going, we know that dopamine has many functions in the brain; most importantly it is central to the reward system. Dopamine neurons are activated when an unexpected reward is presented and, in nature, we learn to repeat behaviours that lead to unexpected rewards.⁸³

Bearing the above in mind, researchers looked at two enzymes, (protein kinase A and adenylate cyclase), both of which translate chemical signals, such as dopamine. Smokers were found to have higher levels of the enzymes in the nucleus accumbens, which relates to motivation and reward, which is part of the brain that virtually all illicit drugs act upon. Levels of both enzymes were also found to be high in the area of the midbrain that responds to dopamine, which acts as a “reward chemical” in smokers and former smokers.⁸⁴ These are the same changes that had been seen in the brains of rats given repeated injections of cocaine and morphine.⁸⁵ The researchers concluded that these findings extended their understanding of addiction-related neuroadaptations in human subjects and suggested that smoking-induced brain neuroadaptations can persist for significant periods in former smokers.⁸⁶

It would indeed be odd if taking large doses of a drug such as nicotine many times a day over many years did not result in lasting changes in the brain and unwelcome effects such as withdrawals on giving up the habit. This research hopefully gives a greater measure of understanding and makes clear the difficulties people have in quitting smoking. It easier to see how via neuroadaptations cigarette smoking is a pleasure that becomes a habit, which becomes a physical and mental addiction.

In recent years, doctors have been using ‘functional neurosurgery’ i.e. causing intentional damage to very well-defined brain regions to relieve pain, the tremour of Parkinson’s disease, and treat stubborn depression. I doubt many would want to take such a precarious and severe route to rid themselves of the smoking habit. However, in January, scientists published a paper on their discovery that some individuals with brain damage, who subsequently give up smoking with ease might point to a surgical ‘cure’ for smoking.⁸⁷

What appears to have captured the attention of the American researchers is that smokers who suffer damage to the insular cortex have their addiction to cigarettes practically eliminated.⁸⁸ For example, one man had smoked 40 cigarettes a day, but quit immediately after his insula⁸⁹ was damaged by a stroke. This suggests a significant role for the insular cortex in the neurological mechanisms underlying addiction to nicotine and other drugs, and would make this area of the brain a promising target for novel anti-addiction medications (or possibly trans-cranial magnetic stimulation.).⁹⁰

Whether such complicated treatments for cigarette–addiction will ever evolve on the medicine scene or even be welcomed by the public remains to be seen. Meanwhile, the simplest thing to do for smokers, former smokers and non-smokers, to assist avoidance and protection against cancers caused by smoking is stick to wonderful watercress in their diet.

Don’t forget Watercress is Fun!

Why not have a great family day out and celebrate Watercress on Sunday 13^th May 2007 at the town of Alresford in Hampshire, which hosts the annual Watercress Festival, to mark the start of the British Watercress season and the launch of National Watercress Week.

To whet your appetite, celebrity chef Antony Worrall Thompson, will be hosting cookery demonstrations of a selection of his favourite watercress dishes. Specialty foods will be available for visitors to sample and buy at Hampshire Fare market. Local producers, eateries and retailers will be competing in The Watercress Food Awards, and demonstrating how versatile watercress can be, with a range of different watercress products - they have previously even made watercress chocolates!

There’s a watercress cookery workshop running all day for the children 5-9 years, as well as live music, street theatre, face painting, a bouncy castle and a children’s craft workshop. And, there will be watercress dishes at the many fine restaurants and pubs of Alresford.

The 2007 Festival highlight will be The Green Man, The Watercress Man, who will lead a spectacular parade, presenting the crowds with the first of the season’s watercress harvest. Don’t miss it!

NB: There will be a park and ride service to the Festival (Alresford station) access from Ropley train station see www.watercressline.co.uk and for more details of times and events see www.watercress.co.uk/ .

1. ‘England smoke ban to start 1^st July 2007’ BBC News Online, 1^st December 2006.

1A. ‘FOREST’: Freedom Organization for the Right to Enjoy Smoking Tobacco: Launched in 1979 by former Battle of Britain fighter pilot (and pipe smoker) Sir Christopher Foxley-Norris who decided to get a few like-minded individuals together and launch a campaign to defend smokers’ rights.

1B. ‘Scots ‘back smoke ban exemptions’ – BBC News Online 19^th March 2007.

1D. ‘Smoke ban ‘threatens environment’ – BBC News Online, 16^th February, 2006.

1G. ‘Scots ‘back smoke ban exemptions’ – BBC News Online 19^th March 2007.

6. ’Campaigners welcome smoking ban’ BBC News Online, 15^th February, 2006 + Ibid: SMOKING BANS: Irish Republic: March 2004, Scotland: March 2006, Northern Ireland: April 2007, Wales: April 2007.

7. ‘England smoke ban to start 1^st July 2007’ BBC News Online, 1^st December 2006.

8. ’Campaigners welcome smoking ban’ BBC News Online, 15^th February, 2006

9. ‘England smoke ban to start 1^st July 2007’ BBC News Online, 1^st December 2006.

16. Natural American Spirit is a brand of cigarette and tobacco products manufactured in the USA by the Santa Fe Natural Tobacco Company founded in 1982, but since 2002 were acquired by Reynolds American and is now an independent subsidiary. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_American_Spirit

17. Ibid & OHSU RESEARCHER PUBLISHES FIRST MEASUREMENTS OF “FREE BASE” NICOTINE IN THE SMOKE OF COMMERCIAL CIGARETTES - Thought to be the most addictive form of the substance in tobacco smoke, free-base nicotine is found at a wide range of levels in popular brands by scientists at the OGI School of Science & Engineering. 24^th July 2003. Pub. American Chemical Society’s journal Chemical Research in Toxicology. http://www.ohsu.edu/news/2003/071803smoke.html

21. ‘Ash’ Action on Smoking and Health – Campaigners against Smoking - http://www.ash.org.uk/

24. Airway irritation and cough evoked by inhaled cigarette smoke: Role of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Lee Ly, Burki NK, et al. Dept. of Physiology, Uv. of Kentucky, Lexington KY USA. Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 2006 Oct 18; [Epub ahead of print]

25. ‘Effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy and environmental tobacco smoke on asthma and wheezing in children.’ Gilliland FD, Li YF, Peters JM. Keck School of Medicine, Dept. of Preventive Medicine, Uv. of Southern California, LA, California, USA. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Feb; 163(2):429-346.

26. ‘Environmental tobacco smoke, genetic susceptibility, and risk of lung caner in never-smoking women.’ Bennett Wp, Alvanja MC, et al. (Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Div. of Basic Science), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999 Dec 1; 91(23):2009-14. Comment in: J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999 Dec 1; 91(23):1985-6. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000 May 3; 92(9):760-1.

27. ‘Glutahoine S transferase deficiency and passive smoking increase in childhood asthma.’ Kabesch M, Hoefler C, et al. Uvd. Of Children’s Hospital, Ludwig Maxmilians University-Munich, Munich, Germany. Thorax. 2004 Jul; 59(7):569-73.

28. ‘Gene link in passive smoking risk’ – BBC News Online, 7^th August 2006.

30. ‘Glutathione S-transferase M1 and P1 genotype, passive smoking, and peak expiratory flow in asthma.’ Palmer CN, Doney AS, et al. Population Pharmacogenetics Group, Biomedical Research Centre, Uv. of Dundee, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, Dundee, Scotland, UK. Pediatrics. 2006 Aug; 118(2):710-6.

32. ‘Gene link in passive smoking risk’ – BBC News Online, 7^th August 2006.

38. ‘Chemoprevention by isothiocyanates’ Hecht SS. American Health Foundation, Naylor Dana Institute for Disease Prevention, Div. of Chemical Carcinogenesis, Valhalla, New York, USA.

‘Chemoprevention of lung cancer by iosthiocyanates’. Hecht SS. American Health Foundation, Valhalla, New York, USA. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1996;401:1-11.

Chemopreventive efficacy of arylalkyl isothiocyanates and N-aetrylcysteine for lung tumorigenesis in Fisher rats. Chung FL, Kelloff G, et al. Div. of Carcinogenesis and Molecular Epidemiology, Naylor Dana Institute for Disease Prevention, American Health Foundation, Valhalla, New York, NY USA. Cancer Res. 1996 Feb 15; 56(4):772-8.

39A. ‘Effects of watercress consumption on metabolism of a tobacco-specific lung carcinogen in smokers.’ Hect SS, Chung FL, et al. American Health Foundation, Valhalla, New York, NY, USA. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1995 Dec; 4(8):877-84.

‘Approaches to chemoprevention of lung cancer based on carcinogens in tobacco smoke.’ Hecht SS. Uv. of Minnesota Cancer Center, Minneapolis, USA. Environ Health Perspect. 1997 Jun; 105 Suppl 4:995-63.

39B. ‘Broccoli and watercress suppress matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity and invasiveness of human MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells.’ Rose P, Huang O, et al. Dept. of Biochemistry, National Uv. of Singapore, Singapore. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2005 Dec 1; 209(2):105-13.Epub 2005 Jun 13.

“Taken together, our data indicate that isothiocyanates derived form broccoli and Rorripa inhibit metalloproteinase 9 activities and also suppress the invasive potential of human MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells in vitro. The inhibitory effects observed in the current study may contribute to the suppression of carcinogenesis by diets high in cruciferous vegetables.”

39C. ‘Inhibitory effects of phenethyl isothiocyanate (PIETC) on N-nitrosobenzylmethylamine carcinogenesis in the rat esophagus.’ Stoner GD, Morrissey DT, et al. Dept. of Pathology, Medicine College of Ohio, Toledo, USA. Cancer Res. 1991 Apr 15; 51(8):2063-8.

39D. ‘beta-Phenethyl isothiocyanate-mediated apoptosis in hepatoma HepG2 cells.’ Rose P, Whiteman M, et al. Dept. of Community, Occupational and Family Medicine, MD3, National Uv. of Singapore, Singapore. Cell Mol Sci. 2003 Jul; 60(7):1489-503.

39E. ‘Chemopreventive of colonic aberrant crypt foci in Fischer rats by sulforaphane and phenethyl isothiocyanates.’ Chung FL, Conaway CC, et al. Div. of Carcinogenesis and Molecular Epidemiology, American Health Foundation, Valhalla, NY, USA. Carcinogenesis. 2000 Dec; 21(12):2287-91.

40. ‘Isothiocyanates as cancer chemopreventive agents: their biological activities and metabolism in rodents and humans.’ Conaway CC, Yang YM, Chung FL. Div. of Carcinogenesis and Molecular Epidemiology, American Health Foundation, Valhalla, New York, NY USA. Curr Drug Metab. 2002 Jun: 3(3):233-55.

42. Sulforaphane: is an anticancer and antimicrobial compound which can be obtained by eating cruciferous vegetables such as Brussel sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower, bok choy, kale, collards, arugula, Chinese Broccoli, broccoli raab, kohlrabi, mustard, turnip, radish, watercress and cabbage. Consumption of broccoli spouts has shown to be effective at inhibiting Helicobacter pylori growth with sulforaphane being at least one of the active agents. http://www.wordwebonline.com/search.pl?w=sulforaphane

43. ‘Phenethyl isothiocyanates and sulforaphane and their N-acetylcysteine conjugates inhibit malignant progression of lunch adenomas included by tobacco carcinogens in A/J mice.’ Conaway CC, Wang CX, et al. American Health Foundation Cencare Centre. Institute for Cancer Prevention, Valhalla, New York, USA. Cancer Res. 2005 Sep 15; 65(18):8548-57.

44. ‘Major colorectal cancer aetiological hypotheses do not explain mortality trends among Maori and non-Maori New Zealanders.’ Smith AH, Pearce NE, Joseph JG. Int J Eipdemiol. 1985 Mar; 14(1):79-85.

46. ‘A Comparison of Risk and Protective Factors for Colorectal ‘Cancer in the Diet of New Zealand Maori and non-Maori.’ ‘Thomson B, Shaw I. ESR, Christchurch, New Zealand. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2002; 3(4): 319-324.

49. Watercress ‘may cut cancer risk’ BBC News Online 15^th February 2007.

‘Watercress can help fight cancer’ by Jane Kirby, PA Health Correspondent 16^th February 2007.

& ‘Watercress supplementation in diet reduces lymphocyte DNA damage and alters blood antioxidant status in healthy adults.’ Gill CI, Halder S, et al. Northern Ireland Centre for Molecular Biosciences, Uv. of Ulster, Coleraine, N. Ireland, UK. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Feb; 85(2):504-10. Study funded by the ‘Watercress Alliance’ made up of three producers, Vitacress Salads, Alresford Salads and The Watercress Company.

55. ‘Assessment of the anti-genotoxic, anti-proliferative, and anti-metastatic potential of crude watercress extract in human colon cancer cells.’ Boyd LA, McCann MJ, et al. Northern Ireland Centre for Food and Health, Centre for Molecular Biosciences, Uv. of Ulster, Northern Ireland, UK. Nutr. Cancer. 2006; 55(2):232-41.

58. ‘Isothiocyanates as cancer chemopreventive agents: their biological activities and metabolism in rodents and humans.’ Conaway CC, Yang YM, Chung FL. Div. of Carcinogenesis and Molecular Epidemiology, American Health Foundation Valhalla, NY, USA. Curr Drug Metab. 2002 Jun: 3(3):233-55.

59. ‘Ingestion of an isothiocyanates metabolite from cruciferous vegetables inhibits growth of human prostate cancer cell zenografts by apoptosis and cell cycle arrest.’ Chaio JW, Wu H, et al. Dept. of Medicine, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA. Carcinogenesis. 2004 Aug; 25(8):1403-8. Epub 2004 Mar 11.

63. ‘Heavy smoker’s arthritis risk’ BBC News Online 13^th February 2001.

‘Heavy cigarette smoking is strongly associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), particularly in patients without a family history of RA.’ Hutchinson D, Shepstone L, et al. Rheumatology Research Group, Uv. Hospital Aintree, Liverpool, UK. Ann Rheum Dis. 2001 Mar; 60(3):223-7. Comment in: Ann Rheum Dis. 2001 Dec; 60(12):1154-5.

‘A gene-environment interaction between smoking and a shared eptope gene in HLA-DR provides a high risk of seropositive rheumatoid arthritis.’ Padyukov L, Silva C, et al. Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden, and Mechbikov Research Institute, Stockholm, Sweden. Arthritis Rheum. 2004 Oct; 50(10):3085-92. Comment in: Arthritis Rheum. 2005 Nov; 52(11):3675-6; author reply 3676-8. Arthritis Rheum. 2005 Nov; 52(11):3676; author reply 3676-8.

73. ‘Police smokers get hypnotherapy’ BBC News Online 9^th March 2007 & ‘Hypnotists to help police quit smoking’ Daily Mail, 9^th March, 2007 – http://www.dailymail.co.uk

75. ‘Smoking alters brain ‘like drugs’, BBC News Online, 24^th February 2007.

‘Long-term upregulation of protein kinase A and adenylate cyclase levels of human smokers.’ Hope BT, Nagarkar D, Leonard S and Wise RA. Behavioural Neuroscience Branch, Intramural Research Program/National Institute on Drug Abuse/National Institutes of Health/Department of Health and Human Services, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. J Neurosci. 2007 Feb 21; 27(8):1964-72.

84. ‘Smoking alters brain ‘like drugs’, BBC News Online, 24^th February 2007.

87. ‘Brain’s ‘addiction centre’ found’ BBC News Online, 25^th January 2007.

‘Damage to the insula disrupts addiction to cigarette smoking.’ Nagvi NH, Rudrauf D, et al. Div. of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Neurology, Uv. of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA. Science. 2007 Jan 26; 315(5811):531-4.

88. ‘Brain’s ‘addiction centre’ found’ BBC News Online, 25^th January 2007.

89. Insular cortex (abbrev. Insula) is a structure of the human brain. “ … Functionally speaking, the insula is believed to process convergent information to produce an emotionally relevant context for sensory experience. More specifically, the anterior insula is related more to olfactory, gustatory, vicero-autonomic, and limbic function, while the posterior insula is related more to auditory-somesthetic-skeletomotor function. Functional imaging experiments have revealed that the insula has an important role in pain experience and the experience of a number of basic emotions, including anger, fear, disgust, happiness and sadness. Functional imaging studies have also implicated the insula in conscious desires, such as food craving and drug craving. … “ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_cortex

90. ‘Brain’s ‘addiction centre’ found’ BBC News Online, 25^th January 2007.